PHIL/PSYC 2100 - Critical Thinking

Study Sheet Midterm

Critical thinking: What is it? What's the 'critical' part? What's the 'thinking' part? Is being critical being negative? Why is critical thinking important? What are some obstacles to being critical (i.e. why is critical thinking so hard)?

Argument: What is it? What is it for? Why are arguments important? What do we understand to be a 'good' argument? Are all good arguments persuasive? Are all persuasive arguments good? What is the difference between premises and conclusion of an argument, and how do they relate?

Anatomy of Arguments: Be able to separate premises from the conclusion. Also be able to say whether premises work independently or dependently. Look for indicators such as 'because', 'hence', and 'besides'. Otherwise, use your common sense and knowledge.

Properties of Arguments:What does it mean for an argument to be valid? Well-founded? Sound? How do you 'attack' or refute arguments? If you have refuted the conclusion of an argument, have you thereby refuted the argument itself? If you have refuted an argument, have you refuted its conclusion?

Logic: Know how to use truth-functional connectives to symbolize statements. What is the difference between necessary and sufficient conditions? Know how to use a truth-table to evaluate the validity of argument. Know how to use the short truth-table method. Know the most important valid and invalid reasoning patterns (handout!)

Properties of Arguments II: Deductive arguments are either valid or invalid. Inductive arguments are strong or weak. What do these terms mean? What is a sound argument? What is a cogent argument?

Argument Diagrams: Diagrams are used to illuminate the structure of the argument. It shows which claims support what other claims, and it shows which claims work together (dependent) to form a single line of reasoning, and which claims are reasons by themselves (independent). Some arguments leave one or more premises unstated (sometimes the conclusion is left unstated as well!). Sometimes this is because it is obvious what they are, but other times it is because the author doesn't really want to highlight them (intentionally or subconsciously). Unstated premises that are controversial, or illuminate the structure of the argument, should be made explicit when analyzing arguments. However, make sure that the diagram remains relatively simple: Cluttered diagrams defeat the purpose of seeing the forest through the trees. Thus: feel free to paraphrase, also because the passage you're presented with represents just one of an infinite number of ways to express the very same argument: your task is to present it clearly and concisely so that subsequent eanalysis and evaluation is helped.

Rhetoric: What is it? What are some of the properties of language that makes rhetoric so effective? Know slanters: euphemisms, dysphemisms, hyperbole, weaselers, downplayers, proof surrogates. Know further rhetorical devices: persuasive comparisons, persuasive definitions, persuasive explanations, loaded questions, horse laugh, ridicule, sarcasm

What are fallacies? Why are fallacies so common? Know the following emotional appeals and fallacies (that is, you should understand what they are and able to recognize them; I won't ask for any definitions):

Emotional Appeals: Appeal to Popularity (Common Practice, Peer Pressure, Bandwagon, Positioning, Provincialism), Appeal to Tradition, Appeal to Novelty, Wishful Thinking, Scare Tactics, Appeal to Pity, Appeal to Indignation/Outrage, Apple Polishing, Appeal to Humor.

Fallacies of Assumption: Straw Man, Slippery Slope, False Dilemma (Perfectionist Fallacy, Line-Drawing Fallacy), Begging the Question

Fallacies of Relevance: Ad Hominem (Abusive Ad Hominem (Personal Attack), Circumstantial Ad Hominem, Inconsistency Ad Hominem (Pseudorefutation), Poisoning the Well), Appeal to Ignorance, Burden of Proof (and inappropriate shift thereof)