sublimation
sublimate
suhb
lih met
Inflected Forms sublimated,
sublimating, sublimates
Definition
1. to divert
the expression of (a crude impulse or desire, often sexual) into a socially
acceptable or more ideal form. Crossref. Syn. sublime
Definition
2. to convert
(a solid or a gas) into a gas or a solid without liquefying; sublime. Related
Words change Derived Forms sublimable, adj. ; sublimation, n.
defense mechanism
in psychoanalysis, any of a variety of unconscious personality
reactions which the ego uses to protect the conscious mind from threatening
feelings and perceptions. Sigmund Freud first used defense as a psychoanalytic
term (1894), but he did not break the notion into categories, viewing it as a
singular phenomenon of repression. His daughter, Anna Freud, expanded on his
theories in the 1930s, distinguishing some of the major defense mechanisms
recognized today. Primary defense mechanisms include repression and denial,
which serve to prevent unacceptable ideas or impulses from entering the
conscience. Secondary defense mechanisms—generally appearing as an outgrowth of the primary defense mechanisms—include
projection, reaction formation, displacement, sublimation, and isolation.
psychoanalysis
is the name given by Sigmund Freud to a system of
interpretation and therapeutic treatment of psychological disorders.
Psychoanalysis began after Freud studied (1885–86) with the French neurologist
J. M. Charcot in Paris and became convinced that hysteria was caused not by
organic symptoms in the nervous system but by emotional disturbance. Later, in
collaboration with Viennese physician Josef Breuer, Freud wrote two papers on
hysteria (1893, 1895) that were the precursors of his vast body of
psychoanalytic theory.
Freud used his psychoanalytic method
primarily to treat clients suffering from a variety of mild mental disorders
classified until recently as neuroses (see neurosis). Freud was joined by an
increasing number of students and physicians, among whom were C. G. Jung and
Alfred Adler. Both made significant contributions, but by 1913 ceased to be
identified with the main body of psychoanalysts because of theoretical
disagreements with Freud’s strong emphasis on sexual motivation. Other
analysts, including Melanie Klein and Jacques Lacan,
also have contributed greatly to the field. Psychoanalysis and its theoretical
underpinnings have had an enormous influence on modern psychology and
psychiatry and in fields as diverse as literary theory, anthropology, and film
criticism.
1 Psychoanalytic Therapy and
Theory
The basic postulate of
psychoanalysis, the concept of a dynamic unconscious mind, grew out of Freud’s
observation that the physical symptoms of hysterical patients tended to
disappear after apparently forgotten material was made conscious (see
hysteria). He saw the unconscious as an area of great psychic activity, which
influenced personality and behavior but operated with material not subject to
recall through normal mental processes. Freud postulated that there were a
number of defense mechanisms—including repression, reaction-formation,
regression, displacement, and rationalization—that protect the conscious mind
from those aspects of reality it may find difficult to accept. The major
defense mechanism is repression, which induced a “forgetfulness”
for harsh realities. Observing the relationship between psychoneurosis and
repressed memories, Freud made conscious recognition of these forgotten
experiences the foundation of psychoanalytic therapy.
Hypnosis was the earliest method
used to probe the unconscious, but due to its limited effectiveness, it was
soon discarded in favor of free association (see also hypnotism). Dreams, which
Freud interpreted as symbolic wish fulfillments, were considered a primary key
to the unconscious, and their analysis was an important part of Freudian
therapy. 2 To clarify the operation of the human psyche, Freud and his
followers introduced a vast body of psychoanalytic theory. In considering the
human personality as a whole, Freud divided it into three functional parts:
id, ego, and superego:
He saw the id as the deepest
level of the unconscious, dominated by the pleasure principle, with its object
the immediate gratification of instinctual drives.
The superego, originating in
the child through an identification with parents, and
in response to social pressures, functions as an internal censor to repress the
urges of the id.
The ego, on the other hand,
is seen as a part of the id modified by contact with the external world. It is
a mental agent mediating among three contending forces: the outside demands of
social pressure or reality, libidinal demands for immediate satisfaction
arising from the id, and the moral demands of the superego. Although considered
only partly conscious, the ego constitutes the major part of what is commonly
referred to as consciousness.
Freud asserted that conflicts between
these often-opposing components of the human mind are crucial factors in the
development of neurosis.
3
Psychoanalysis
focussed
on early childhood, postulating that many of the conflicts which arise in the
human mind develop in the first years of a person’s life. Freud demonstrated
this in his theory of psychosexuality, in which the libido (sexual energy) of
the infant progressively seeks outlet through different body zones (oral, anal,
phallic, and genital) during the first five to six years of life. 4 Criticisms
of and Changes in Freudian Psychoanalysis Orthodox Freudian psychoanalysis was
challenged in the 1920s by Otto Rank, Sandor Ferenczi, and Wilhelm Reich; later, in the 1930s, by Karen
Horney, Erich Fromm, and Harry Stack Sullivan. These critics of Freud stressed
the interpersonal aspect of the analyst-patient relationship (transference),
and placed more emphasis on the processes of the ego. Despite a number of
detractors and a lack of controlled research, Freudian psychoanalysis remained
the most widely used method of psychotherapy until at least the 1950s.
Today, Freud’s method is only one
among many types of psychotherapy used in psychiatry. Many objections have been
leveled against traditional psychoanalysis, both for its methodological rigidity
and for its lack of theoretical rigor. A number of modern psychologists have
pointed out that traditional psychoanalysis relies too much on ambiguities for
its data, such as dreams and free associations. Without empirical evidence,
Freudian theories often seem weak, and ultimately fail to initiate standards
for treatment.
Critics have also pointed out that
Freud’s theoretical models arise from a homogeneous sample group—almost
exclusively upper-class Austrian women living in the sexually repressed society
of the late 19th cent. Such a sample, many psychologists contend, made Freud’s
focus on sex as a determinant of personality too emphatic. Other problems with
traditional psychoanalysis are related to Freud’s method of analysis. For
Freudian analysis to reach its intended conclusions, the psychoanalyst required
frequent sessions with a client over a period of years: today, the prohibitive costs of such methods compels most to seek other forms of
psychiatric care.
Traditional psychoanalysis involved
a distancing between therapist and client—the two did not even face each other
during the sessions. In recent years, many clients have preferred a more
interactive experience with the therapist. The subject matter of Freudian
analysis has also fallen into disuse, even among those who still practice
psychoanalysis: early childhood receives much less emphasis, and there is
generally more focus on problems the client is currently experiencing.
Bibliography See the works of Freud;
A. Bernstein and G. Warner, An Introduction to Contemporary Psychoanalysis
(1981); J. Reppen, ed., Beyond Freud (1984); C. G.
Jung, The Collected Works, Vol. 4: Freud and Psychoanalysis (tr. 1985); S.
Marcus, Freud and the Culture of Psychoanalysis (1984, repr.
1987); O. A. Olsen and S. Koppe, The Psychoanalysis
of Freud (1988); C. Badcock, Essential Freud (1988);
E. Kurzweil, The Freudian Establishments (1989).